IndexNarcissistic Personality DisorderA Brief History of NarcissismThe Psychodynamic View of NarcissismThe School of Self PsychologyThe Object Relations SchoolDiagnostic Criteria for Narcissistic Personality DisorderTypes of NarcissismCauses of NarcissismTreatment of NarcissismSummaryWorks CitedNarcissistic Personality DisorderNarcissism is defined as a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy that begins in early adulthood and is present in a variety of contexts (Frances, 714). Individuals with this disorder have an exaggerated sense of self-importance; they habitually overestimate their abilities and inflate their achievements, often appearing boastful and pretentious. Narcissists possess an exaggerated sense of importance about themselves and their work. Their work and themselves come first while other people, especially close, intimate relationships, become less important. Preoccupied with self-promotion, narcissists show contempt and lack of consideration for other people while bettering themselves. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an Original EssayThe following myth first told by one of the greatest Latin poets, Ovid (43 BC-18 AD) "The Story of Echo and Narcissus" told by Edith Hamilton serves to demonstrate the destructive nature of narcissism. Long ago there lived a beautiful boy, whose name was Narcissus. His beauty was so great that all the girls who saw him wanted to be his, but he didn't want any of them. He passed by the most beautiful one casually, no matter how much she tried to be looked at. The heartbroken maidens were taking notice. Even the sad case of the most beautiful of the nymphs, Eco, did not move him. She was the favorite of Artemis, the goddess of the woods and wild things, but she ended up displeasing the even more powerful goddess, Hera herself, who was busy with her usual occupation of trying to find out what Zeus was doing. She suspected that he was in love with one of the nymphs and went to visit them to try to find out which one. However she was immediately distracted from her investigation by Echo's gay chatter. As she listened in amusement, the others drifted away silently, and Hera could come to no conclusion as to where Zeus' wandering imagination had landed. With his usual injustice he turned against Echo. That nymph became another unhappy girl whom Hera punished. The goddess condemned her never to use her tongue again except to repeat what she had been told. “You will always have the last word,” Hera said, “but you will not have the power to speak first.” This is very difficult, but even more difficult when Eco, with the other unhappy girls, also loves Narcissus. She could follow him, but she couldn't talk to him. How then could he get a young man who had never looked at a girl to pay attention to her? One day, however, it seemed that his chance had come. He was calling his companions. "Is there anyone here?" and she cried out in ecstasy, "Qui-Qui." She was still hidden in the trees so he wouldn't see her, and he shouted, "Come!", just what she wanted to say to him. She joyfully replied, “Come!” and came out of the woods with outstretched arms. But he turned away in angry disgust. “It is not so,” he said; “I will die before I give you power over me.” All she could say was, humbly, pleading, “I give you power over me,” but he was gone. She hid her blush and shame in a lonely cave, and could never be comforted. Yet she lives in places like that, and they say she is so consumed by desire that now all she has left is her voice. So Narcissus continued his cruel way, despisinglove. But finally one of the wounded ones prayed a prayer and the gods answered him: "He who does not love others, let him love himself." The great goddess Nemesis, meaning righteous anger, undertook to bring this about. While Narcissus bent over a clear pool to drink and saw his reflection there, it was at the moment he fell in love with it. “Now I know,” he cried, “what others have suffered because of me, for I burn with love for myself – and yet how can I reach that beauty which I see mirrored in the water? But I can't leave him. Only death can set me free." And so it happened. He pined, perpetually leaning over the pool, fixed in a wooden gaze. Echo was close to him, but he could do nothing; only when, dying, he called her image: "Goodbye, goodbye", she was able to repeat those words to him as a final farewell. It is said that when his spirit crossed the river surrounding the world of the dead, he leaned out of the boat to catch a last glimpse of himself in the water. A Brief History of Narcissism In 1898, Ellis first used the term narcissism in relation to psychology. phenomena when it describes a special state of autoeroticism in which sexual feelings are absorbed in self-admiration. Freud later incorporated the term into his psychoanalytic theory in his 1914 essay "On Narcissism". Freud considered narcissism a sexual perversion involving a pathological sexual love for one's body. These two theories cite developmental problems in childhood as causal factors leading to the development of narcissistic disorder, while others suggest that society as a whole causes the disorder. Since then, several other psychological theories have attempted to explain and treat the disorder. However, the psychodynamic perspective of narcissism offers the most comprehensive explanation of the disorder. The Psychodynamic View of Narcissism Two overlapping schools of thought dominate the psychodynamic model of narcissism: the self psychology school represented by Kohut and the object relations school represented by Kernberg. Kohut suggests that narcissism is a component of everyone's psyche and that we are born with this disorder. Kernberg argues that narcissism represents a fixation in one of the developmental periods of childhood. The Heinz Kohut school of self psychology believed that narcissism was a natural and normal development from birth to adulthood. In which a healthy, normal person would be able to transform his childhood narcissism into adult narcissism. “Transmuting internalization” is a term he used to describe the process in which a child transforming into an adult encounters various challenges that result in some frustration. Having optimal frustrations leads the person to develop a strong internal structure or a strong sense of self. This is used to compensate for the lack of external structure or support from others, so if the narcissistic process of transmutation is hindered. Due to a level of frustration that exceeds the optimal frustration, in which the person experiences. He or she will be stuck at the infantile level, displaying many characteristics of the omnipotent and invulnerable child. The Object Relations School Otto Kernberg's views of narcissism are based on Mahler's theory of separation. Made up of an individual process of separation, from infancy to early childhood. The developing child acquires a stable self-concept by mastering two main phases, normal autism and symbiosis, along with four other subphases: differentiation, practice, rapprochement, and consolidation of separation-individuation. Kernberg argues that an individual is unable to successfully master the rapprochement subphase and becomes fixated at this level. At the age of 10-14 months the development phase beginswhere the child learns to walk. This ability gives a completely new perspective to the child thus giving him a sense of grandiosity and omnipotence, reminiscent of narcissistic behavior. At the age of 14-24 months the child enters the rapprochement sub-phase discovering that he has limits in what he can do. If the child is severely frustrated he adapts by refusing or returning to the practice subphase accordingly. This will be his omnipotence and invulnerability. Diagnostic Criteria for Narcissistic Personality DisorderThe American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders identifies nine criteria for diagnosing narcissistic personality disorder. The essential feature of the disorder is a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy that begins in early adulthood and is present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five or more of the following diagnostic criteria: The individual has a grandiose sense of self-importance. These individuals routinely overestimate their abilities and inflate their accomplishments. They often exaggerate their own achievements and talents and fully expect to be recognized as superior without the corresponding achievements. They will often be surprised when the praise they expect and feel they deserve does not come. They also tend to underestimate or devalue the contributions of others in order to increase their own contribution in the eyes of others. Those suffering from narcissistic personality disorder are often preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love. They often think or fantasize for long periods about gaining the admiration of others. A narcissist will believe that they are "special" and unique and can only be understood by other special people. They also believe that they should associate with other special or famous people. A narcissist may insist on having the best lawyer to represent him, or a famous doctor to treat an illness. A narcissist requires excessive admiration. Because their self-esteem is usually very fragile, they may be concerned about how well they are doing and how favorably others view them. This often takes the form of a need for constant attention and admiration to the point of expecting their arrival to be greeted with great fanfare. A narcissist often has an unreasonable expectation of particularly favorable treatment or automatic fulfillment of his expectations. They expect to be satisfied and sometimes get angry when they do not receive such treatment. A narcissist will take advantage of others to achieve their own ends. They will expect to receive what they want or feel they need, regardless of the impact it has on others. They will often take special privileges and extra resources that they believe they deserve because they are so special. A narcissist is completely reluctant to acknowledge or identify with the feelings and needs of others. In other words, they lack the capacity for empathy, which is essential for mature relationships. They assume that everyone is totally concerned about their well-being and will most likely become impatient with others talking about their problems. A narcissist is often envious of others or believes that others are envious of him or her. They may harshly devalue the contributions of others, particularly when those individuals have received recognition or praise for their achievements. Finally, a narcissist will display snobbish, arrogant, and disdainful or condescending attitudes toward others who have received recognition or are perceived to have a higher status than others. They. Types of Narcissism Like most personality disorders, narcissism manifests itself to varying degrees in different peopleand it can reveal itself in many ways. Many highly successful individuals may exhibit personality traits that could be considered narcissistic. So, a small amount of narcissism might be helpful. For example, many business and political leaders today exhibit many of the traits associated with narcissism. However, excessive narcissistic behavior can lead to insatiability and disaster. A narcissist can develop in two directions. One of these is the exhibitionist narcissist where the environment supports his or her grandiosity but the feelings are ignored and he or she thus continues the cycle, trying to restore his or her feelings. This would include the need for attention or attention seeking tactics such as working with charities, volunteering, the non-profit sector. In most cases these are women who want to prove to the world that they are wonderful, kind, caring and compassionate people. Other ways could be to fake an injury or make up hate crimes. Another example would be Munchausen syndrome. It is usually a mother who deliberately harms her baby with the intention of attracting the attention of medical personnel. Sometimes the narcissist will work as a nurse or in nursing homes causing the death of some and not being discovered. The second type of narcissist is the covert narcissist in which the individual suppresses himself from expressing this grandiosity. This narcissist will only reveal his feelings of grandiosity when such revelations are safe and not in public. This could mean having a relationship with someone just to satisfy their needs. He or she would resort to sex. Narcissistic partners would be considered his objects, not as desire. In this case it is an element of conquest and must change partners very often. Some narcissists like complicated situations such as virgins, married women or men, the harder to catch, the better. A narcissist may appear to lose interest in sex and all of his sexual partners. Frequency would be reduced from a few times a week to a few times a year. A narcissist might avoid his or her spouse and take up sports, politics, or volunteering for anything except sex, in order to punish him or her for something, or simply because he or she feels confined or has lost freedom. There are three levels of narcissism. The extreme level where there is no separation between the self and the object. The object is seen as an extension of the narcissist. An example would be that if a narcissist considers himself unattractive, he would look for someone attractive to satisfy his need. Level two is when a narcissist recognizes the object's separateness, but still sees the object as similar to him or her, sharing the same psychological structure. Level three is when the narcissist perceives both separate and psychological difference but is unable to appreciate the object as a separate person. Causes of Narcissism Medical data showing early mistreatment of individuals physically, sexually, or emotionally has negative effects on brain development. Brain wave abnormalities were present in histories of such early trauma and were twice as frequent as in non-abused patients. The left side of the EEG also showed abnormalities and decreased development of the left hemisphere. MRI showed that the left hippocampus of abused patients was much smaller than that of non-abused patients. Studies have also shown that abused children had verbal memory deficits. These alterations can increase the risk of depression and many other disorders, including narcissistic personality disorder. Verbal abuse investigations also show aincreased risk of personality disorders. Children who experienced maternal verbal abuse were three times more likely to have borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive and paranoid personality disorders during adolescence or early adulthood. These associations remained significant. Furthermore, this showed that the disorders are elevated in adulthood. There may be a link between obsessive compulsive disorders and narcissistic disorders. Therefore, being a superficial function, retaining the self-object. Causing the loss of the bond would result in the loss of self. ADHD can also be associated with narcissistic disorder. Children suffering from ADHD are unlikely to develop the necessary attachment. This is how narcissistic disorder occurs, through regression or adaptation. Another hypothesis could be the link of autistic disorders to narcissism. Treatment of Narcissism Most narcissists reject the idea that they are mentally disturbed. The level or degree of narcissism may improve, but rarely will an individual suffering from the disease be cured due to the lifelong, irreplaceable and indispensable emotional investment in his or her disorder. Narcissists are attached to one thing their disorder. Treatment of the narcissist revolves around the transference of the relationship. The analyst remains silent and invisible, there to listen, echo, and interpret the narcissist's actions. The therapist remains attentive to his patient's needs by becoming a mirror for the narcissist to compare his alter ego. According to Grunberger “the patient should enjoy complete narcissistic freedom, in the sense that he should always be the only active party. The analyst does not have his own real existence in relation to the analysand”, the analyst must not be good or bad or even exist. Analysis is not dialogue; it is a monologue with two voices, one speaking and the other echoing, repeating, clarifying and interpreting correctly. According to Grunberger, the analyst must remain a faithful and uncontaminated mirror. Once the therapeutic relationship is established, the narcissistic mirror transference and the self-object transference emerge. This will only happen when the therapist can provide a strong sense of validation to the narcissist by allowing him to remember his hurt child. The level of reflection on the injured child will depend on the three types mentioned above. The fusion transference will perceive the therapist as a virtual extension of them. Should the therapist deviate slightly from the narcissist's needs or opinions, the patient will respond by withdrawing. In the second type, the narcissist perceives the therapist as separate but similar. It is necessary for the narcissist to view the therapist just like me and be supported. In the third type the therapist must be able to strengthen the narcissist's insecure self. So the narcissist's only interest is in reflecting his own grandiosity. Using transference allows the narcissist to heal his low self-esteem and reaffirm damaged grandiosity. To heal the false self, the therapist must take advantage of the narcissist's emotional state. Making the narcissist focus on his or her internal feelings in that moment. Another approach could be "hands-off". Letting the narcissist take control of therapy sessions. It is up to the therapist to recognize the narcissistic wound and discover the cause of the wound. Once the injury is discovered, the therapist must explore the issue without threatening the narcissist. Summary Individuals suffering from narcissistic personality disorder usually overestimate their abilities and inflate their achievements. They appear boastful and pretentious, underestimating and devaluing the achievements and achievements of others. Narcissists sometimes fraudulently claim to have qualifications or experience that, 61(4), 590-597.