consumer of resources and producer of waste” (Campbell, 2006, p. 298). Economic sustainability, at a simplistic level, is when communities are in a position to maintain their independence financially. To an economic development planner, cities are seen as places of production and consumption, competing with other cities for industry and markets. Social sustainability, finally, occurs when universal fundamental human rights and needs are attainable by all so that people can live harmoniously in a just society. The view of the social, or “equity planner” as Campbell calls it, is that the conflict is autonomous as various social groups within the city compete with each other for opportunities, resources and services. “And while sustainable development aspires to offer an attractive and holistic way to escape these conflicts, they cannot be shaken off so easily.” (Campbell, 1996, p.296) As Campbell explains, however, achieving balance is almost impossible because if one corner prospers, it is often at the expense of the other two. It suggests that planners become mediators, drawing on their procedural and substantive expertise, to guide the debate and reconcile these three competing interests. He also takes a rather negative stance towards planners, alluding to the fact that they are “drastically limited” by fiscal and professional constraints and that most planners live to serve the pockets and interests of bureaucracies and their clients. He then contradicts himself further by saying that planners actually focus on things like providing better social housing and preserving green spaces, and perhaps suggests that if their focus wasn't so narrow, it would be more effective in achieving sustainability. “Fairness” and “equity” are both included in the Irish Planning Institute's definition of planning, reminding us that the profession is strongly linked to values and ethics, so although planners in local government may often be constrained by finances, they make their own judgments on the basis of the common good, an ambitious notion that has its roots two thousand years ago in the writings of philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato. The common good suggests that planners work in ways that benefit most stakeholders. In the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution was a significant catalyst for utopian experimentation. Rapid urbanization and capitalism during this period, particularly in Europe and the United States of America, brought with it unprecedented challenges such as the degradation of the quality of life within communities due to longer working hours, of insufficient pay, overcrowding and poor living conditions. In response to this, industrialists such as Charles Fourier, Titus Salt and Lever Brothers identified the difficulties of their employees and decided to create new communities to reform their lives with better living conditions, access to services and facilities and a better overall quality of life . life for all. In addition to improving relations between society and the economy, other utopian visionaries strove to improve relations between humans and the environment. (Kleniewski, 2006) One such visionary was Ebenezer Howard, whose Garden City was one of the most influential planning models produced in the twentieth century. Howard imagined a better environment; a marriage between city and countryside. He thought that by combining the best elements of each place he would create an ideal community. Howard's Garden City had a dense, compact downtown, complete with all necessary amenities, civic spaces, and services, supplemented by clusters of smaller, polycentric suburban areas. Betweenthese urban areas would have green zones and areas of vast open space used for agricultural activities, forestry and so on. The formality of this framework allows for the creation of efficient infrastructures. If part of this approach were applied to today's cities, it could help address many of the sustainability issues they face. Ensuring that urban centers are dense, mixed-use and used to their full potential is very important. Agricultural or passive green belts are vital to hinder urban expansion. Urban vertical gardens, community and rooftop gardens that green public space, active green spaces: all of this would help improve the liveability of a community. Another influential 20th century figure in the planning discipline was the architect Le Corbusier. He proposed the idea of a "radiant city" whose signature was skyscrapers surrounded by open green spaces intersected by the highway. “Le Corbusier argued that by increasing the number of people housed in a building you could reduce the amount of land covered and maximize the amount of open space, thus giving the city its green 'lung'.” (Kleniewski, 2006) Le Corbusier aimed to achieve efficient land use by increasing the density of each building and leaving an abundance of open space for recreational or agricultural activities. While none of these utopian visions were in themselves the cure for all the city's ills, they influenced some of the practice of planners. In reality, however, urban growth and development were the result of a market-driven process, fostered by cheap energy and the rapid growth of private automobiles as a symbol of wealth and an affordable means of transportation during the first half of the 20th century. lead to inefficient urban expansion. (Kleniewski, 2006, p.365) Urban planning and design quickly adapted to the demand for automotive infrastructure required by suburban living and the unbridled acquisition of land from agricultural areas, forests, and other open spaces that became the norm with construction of extensive road networks. The availability of the car meant that land use functions could be separated through single-use zoning, resulting in even lower residential and work densities and making the private car the only rational means of transport. As a result of this type of “free enterprise construction,” cities were not only “ugly” but had harmful impacts on public health and the environment. Planners responded to this, however, realizing that it was not a sustainable way of development. In an American context, urban planners expert in the construction of sanitary sewers were imported from England. Planners also sought to address the city's aesthetics by thinking about architecture and design in a new way. “The so-called City Beautiful movement sought to raise the standards of design in public spaces and to bring art into the consciousness of the common citizen.” (Kleniewski, 2006, p. 367) This movement was adopted by many cities around the world in the early 1900s. These same reformers also called for planning to support better living conditions, particularly for the poor. “The origins of urban planning, then, were driven by a mix of practical realities relating to public health and safety, desires for aesthetic surroundings, and aspirations to improve social conditions.” (Kleniewski, 2006, p. 367) In Davidoff's (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning, he criticizes much of traditional planning practices. According to him, planners can often be quite narrow-minded when it comes to making decisions that.

Topic > consumer of resources and producer of waste” (Campbell, 2006, p. 298). Economic sustainability, at a simplistic level, is when communities are in a position to maintain their independence financially. To an economic development planner, cities are seen as places of production and consumption, competing with other cities for industry and markets. Social sustainability, finally, occurs when universal fundamental human rights and needs are attainable by all so that people can live harmoniously in a just society. The view of the social, or “equity planner” as Campbell calls it, is that the conflict is autonomous as various social groups within the city compete with each other for opportunities, resources and services. “And while sustainable development aspires to offer an attractive and holistic way to escape these conflicts, they cannot be shaken off so easily.” (Campbell, 1996, p.296) As Campbell explains, however, achieving balance is almost impossible because if one corner prospers, it is often at the expense of the other two. It suggests that planners become mediators, drawing on their procedural and substantive expertise, to guide the debate and reconcile these three competing interests. He also takes a rather negative stance towards planners, alluding to the fact that they are “drastically limited” by fiscal and professional constraints and that most planners live to serve the pockets and interests of bureaucracies and their clients. He then contradicts himself further by saying that planners actually focus on things like providing better social housing and preserving green spaces, and perhaps suggests that if their focus wasn't so narrow, it would be more effective in achieving sustainability. “Fairness” and “equity” are both included in the Irish Planning Institute's definition of planning, reminding us that the profession is strongly linked to values and ethics, so although planners in local government may often be constrained by finances, they make their own judgments on the basis of the common good, an ambitious notion that has its roots two thousand years ago in the writings of philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato. The common good suggests that planners work in ways that benefit most stakeholders. In the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution was a significant catalyst for utopian experimentation. Rapid urbanization and capitalism during this period, particularly in Europe and the United States of America, brought with it unprecedented challenges such as the degradation of the quality of life within communities due to longer working hours, of insufficient pay, overcrowding and poor living conditions. In response to this, industrialists such as Charles Fourier, Titus Salt and Lever Brothers identified the difficulties of their employees and decided to create new communities to reform their lives with better living conditions, access to services and facilities and a better overall quality of life . life for all. In addition to improving relations between society and the economy, other utopian visionaries strove to improve relations between humans and the environment. (Kleniewski, 2006) One such visionary was Ebenezer Howard, whose Garden City was one of the most influential planning models produced in the twentieth century. Howard imagined a better environment; a marriage between city and countryside. He thought that by combining the best elements of each place he would create an ideal community. Howard's Garden City had a dense, compact downtown, complete with all necessary amenities, civic spaces, and services, supplemented by clusters of smaller, polycentric suburban areas. Betweenthese urban areas would have green zones and areas of vast open space used for agricultural activities, forestry and so on. The formality of this framework allows for the creation of efficient infrastructures. If part of this approach were applied to today's cities, it could help address many of the sustainability issues they face. Ensuring that urban centers are dense, mixed-use and used to their full potential is very important. Agricultural or passive green belts are vital to hinder urban expansion. Urban vertical gardens, community and rooftop gardens that green public space, active green spaces: all of this would help improve the liveability of a community. Another influential 20th century figure in the planning discipline was the architect Le Corbusier. He proposed the idea of a "radiant city" whose signature was skyscrapers surrounded by open green spaces intersected by the highway. “Le Corbusier argued that by increasing the number of people housed in a building you could reduce the amount of land covered and maximize the amount of open space, thus giving the city its green 'lung'.” (Kleniewski, 2006) Le Corbusier aimed to achieve efficient land use by increasing the density of each building and leaving an abundance of open space for recreational or agricultural activities. While none of these utopian visions were in themselves the cure for all the city's ills, they influenced some of the practice of planners. In reality, however, urban growth and development were the result of a market-driven process, fostered by cheap energy and the rapid growth of private automobiles as a symbol of wealth and an affordable means of transportation during the first half of the 20th century. lead to inefficient urban expansion. (Kleniewski, 2006, p.365) Urban planning and design quickly adapted to the demand for automotive infrastructure required by suburban living and the unbridled acquisition of land from agricultural areas, forests, and other open spaces that became the norm with construction of extensive road networks. The availability of the car meant that land use functions could be separated through single-use zoning, resulting in even lower residential and work densities and making the private car the only rational means of transport. As a result of this type of “free enterprise construction,” cities were not only “ugly” but had harmful impacts on public health and the environment. Planners responded to this, however, realizing that it was not a sustainable way of development. In an American context, urban planners expert in the construction of sanitary sewers were imported from England. Planners also sought to address the city's aesthetics by thinking about architecture and design in a new way. “The so-called City Beautiful movement sought to raise the standards of design in public spaces and to bring art into the consciousness of the common citizen.” (Kleniewski, 2006, p. 367) This movement was adopted by many cities around the world in the early 1900s. These same reformers also called for planning to support better living conditions, particularly for the poor. “The origins of urban planning, then, were driven by a mix of practical realities relating to public health and safety, desires for aesthetic surroundings, and aspirations to improve social conditions.” (Kleniewski, 2006, p. 367) In Davidoff's (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning, he criticizes much of traditional planning practices. According to him, planners can often be quite narrow-minded when it comes to making decisions that.